Course 1. Fundamentals of Photonics Technology

Module 1. Nature and Properties of Light

    1.1 The nature of light waves
        1.1.1 Light as oscillating electric and magnetic fields
            1.1.1.1 Nature of E and H
            1.1.1.2 E perpendicular to H, E and H perpendicular to direction of propagation
        1.1.2 Form of oscillating field
            1.1.2.1 Wavelike nature
            1.1.2.2 Propagation of the waves
            1.1.2.3 Behavior at a fixed point
        1.1.3 Characteristics of light waves
            1.1.3.1 Amplitude
            1.1.3.2 Wavelength
            1.1.3.3 Frequency
    1.2 Properties of light
        1.2.1 The velocity of light
            1.2.1.1 Universal constant
            1.2.1.2 Numerical value
            1.2.1.3 Frequency X wavelength = velocity of light
        1.2.2.The electromagnetic spectrum
            1.2.2.1 All forms of EM radiation have common nature
            1.2.2.3 Different spectral regions have different wavelength and frequency
            1.2.2.4 Low frequency waves
            1.2.2.5 Radio waves
            1.2.2.6 Microwaves and submillimeter waves
            1.2.2.7 Infrared
            1.2.2.8 Visible light
            1.2.2.9 Ultraviolet
            1.2.2.10 X-rays
            1.2.2.11 Gamma rays
        1.2.3 Spectra of light sources
            1.2.3.1 Continuum
            1.2.3.2 Line spectra
        1.2.4 Blackbody radiation
            1.2.4.1 Origin
            1.2.4.2 Spectral distribution
            1.2.4.3 Wein's displacement law
            1.2.4.4 Stefan's law
        1.2.5 Particle and wave characteristics of light
            1.2.5.1 Dual nature of light
            1.2.5.2 Experiments in which light acts as a wave
            1.2.5.3 Experiments in which light acts as a particle, like the photoelectric effect
            1.2.5.4 Concept of a photon
            1.2.5.5 Photon energy
            1.2.5.7 Relation of photon energy to wavelength
    1.3 Interactions of light with materials
        1.3.1 Absorption
            1.3.1.1 Bier's law
            1.3.1.2 Absorption coefficients
        1.3.2 scattering
            1.3.2.1 Mie scattering
            1.3.2.2 Rayleigh scattering
            1.3.2.3 Scattering coefficients
        1.3.3 Atmospheric transmission
            1.3.3.1 Scattering effects
            1.3.3.2 Molecular absorption bands
            1.3.3.3 Transmission of atmosphere vs wavelength


Module 2. Light Sources, Lasers and Laser Safety

    2.1 Non-laser light sources
        2.1.1 Characteristics of conventional (i.e. non-laser) light sources
            2.1.1.1 non-monochromatic
            2.1.1.2 non-directional
            2.1.1.3 incoherent
        2.1.2 Introduction to incandescent light sources
            2.1.2.1 Blackbody source
            2.1.2.2 Tungsten filament bulbs
        2.1.3 Introduction to fluorescent light sources
            2.1.3.1 Nature of fluorescence
            2.1.3.2 Structure of common fluorescent lights
            2.1.3.3 Characteristics of common fluorescent lamps
        2.1.4 Introduction to arc and gas discharge lamps
            2.1.4.1 Electric discharges in gases
            2.1.4.2 Structure of common discharge lamps
            2.1.4.3 Characteristics of common discharge lamps
        2.1.5 Introduction to LEDs
            2.1.5 Principles of light emission at a semiconductor p-n unction
    2.2 Laser sources
        2.2.1 Requirements for a laser
            2.2.1 1 Gain medium (where energy can be stored & released)
            2.2.1.2 Pump source (to put energy into the laser)
            2.2.1.3 Laser cavity (optical resonator), one mirror partially
                       transmissive to extract beam
        2.2.2 Laser properties
            2.2.2.1 Collimation
            2.2.2.2 Monochromaticity (spectral width)
            2.2.2.3 Coherence
            2.2.2.4 Radiance
            2.2.2.5 Focusability
        2.2.3 Examples of common lasers:
            2.2.3.1 HeNe,
            2.2.3.2 Ruby, 1st laser
            2.2.3.3 CO2
            2.2.3.4 Nd:YAG
            2.2.3.5 Semiconductor diode
    2.3 Operation of HeNe laser
        2.3.1 Energy levels
            2.3.1.1 Levels are those of neon atom
            2.3.1.2 Positions of important levels
            2.3.1.3 Available wavelengths    
        2.3.2 Excitation
            2.3.2.1 Role of the helium
            2.3.2.2 Electron excitation
            2.3.2.3 Transfer of energy to neon
        2.3.3 Laser structrure
            2.3.3.1 Tube
            2.3.3 2 Gas reservoir
            2.3.3 3 Electrode structures
            2.3.3 4 Mirrors
            2.3.3 5 Inhomogeneous magnetic field
        2.3.4 Output vs input
            2.3.4.1 Low current region
            2.3.4.2 Threshold
            2.3.4.3 Negative resistance region
            2.3.4.4 Saturation
        2.3.5 Operating procedures
            2.3.5.1 Turn-on
            2.3.5.2 Variation of current
            2.3.5.3 Turn-off
    2.4 Concepts of laser safety
        2.4.1 Eye hazards
            2.4.1.1 Structure of the eye
            2.4.1.2 Relation of wavelength of radiation to part of eye
                       susceptible to damage
            2.4.1.3 Effect of focusing on retinal damage
        2.4.2 Skin hazards
            2.4.2.1 Nature of skin burns
            2.4.4.2 Effect of wavelength on skin burns
        2.4.3 Protection from the laser beam
            2.4.3.1 ANSI Z136 standard
            2.4.3.2 Maximum permissible exposures
            2.4.3.3 Classes of lasers
            2.4.3.4 Laser safety practices (shielding beam path, neutral density
                       filters, laser goggles, interlocks, etc.)
        2.4.4 Electrical safety
            2.4.4.1 Electrical shock
            2.4.4.2 Electrical safety standards, OSIER, US Dept of Labor, National
                       Electrical Code (NAPA 70), state and local codes
        2.4.5 Chemical safety
            2.4.5.1 Chemical hazards
            2.4.5.2 Chemical safety standards & practices
            2.4.5.3 MSDS sheets


Module 3. Basic Optics

    3.1 Geometric optics
        3.1.1 Concept of a ray
            3.1.1.1 Geometric optics treats light as a ray
            3.1.1.2 Propagation of a ray
            3.1.1.3 Ray tracing
            3.1.1.3 Useful when the scale of the problem is much larger
                         than the wavelength
            3.1.1.4 Limitations that this doesn't account for true wave nature of
                         light and can't be used when scale is comparable to the wavelength
        3.1.2 Definition of reflection
        3.1.3 Law of reflection
            3.1.3.1 Plane surface
            3.1.3.2 Curved surface
            3.1.3.3 Specular reflection
            3.1.3.4 Diffuse reflection
        3.1.4 Definition of refraction - bending of a light ray at the interface between
                 two materials
            3.1.4.1 Definition of index of refraction (n = c/v)
            3.1.4.2 Values of index of refraction for common materials
        3.1.5 Law of refraction (Snell's Law)
            3.1.5.1 Refraction at a plane surface
            3.1.5.2 Critical angle
            3.1.5.3 Total internal reflection
    3.2 Physical Optics
        3.2.1 Basic concepts
            3.2.1.1 Superposition principle
            3.2.1.2 Huygen's wavelets
            3.2.1.3 Advantage of physical optics: based on the true nature of light
        3.2.2 Interference
            3.2.2.1 Superposition of a few waves
            3.2.2.2 Young's two-slit experiment
            3.2.2.3 Two slit interference pattern
            3.2.2.4 Interference from multiple slits
            3.2.2.5 Antireflection coatings
            3.2.2.5 Interference filters
        3.2.3 Diffraction
            3.2.3.1 Superposition of many waves;leads to beam spread
            3.2.3.2 Diffraction from a single slit
            3.2.3.3 Near field versus far field diffraction
            3.2.3.4 Fraunhofer diffraction
            3.2.3.5 Fresnel diffraction
            3.2.3.6 Diffraction from apertures
            3.2.3.7 Diffraction gratings
            3.2.3.8 Diffraction limited beam divergence angle
    3.3 Basic optical components
        3.3.1 Lenses
            3.3.1.1 Concept of focal length
            3.3.1.2 Types of lenses
                    - Positive (convex)
                    - Negative (concave)
                    - Thin lenses
                    - Thick lenses
            3.3.1.3 Lens performance
                    - The lensmaker's equation
                        (1/f = (n-1)(1/R1 - 1/R2))
                    - Thin lens imaging equation
                        (1/f = 1/do + 1/di)
            3.3.1.4 Image formation
                    - With a single lens
                    - With multiple lenses
                    - Magnification
        3.3.2 Mirrors
            3.3.2.1 Plane
            3.3.2.2 Curved
            3.3.2.3 Metallic
            3.3.2.4 Multilayer
        3.3.3 Prisms
            3.3.3.1 Apex angle
            3.3.3.2 Deviation angle
            3.3.3.3 Color dispersion


Module 4. Optical Detectors and Human Vision

    4.1 Basic information on light detectors
        4.1.1 Role of an optical detector
        4.1.2 Types of optical detectors
            4.1.2.1 Thermal detectors
            4.1.2.2 Photon detectors
        4.1.3 Detector characteristics
            4.1.3.1 Responsivity
            4.1.3.2 Noise equivalent power (NEP)
            4.1.3.3 Detectivity (D*)
            4.1.3.4 Quantum efficiency
            4.1.3.5 Response time (speed)
            4.1.3.6 Rise tome
            4.1.3.7 Linearity
            4.1.3.8 Spectral response
        4.1.4 Noise considerations
            4.1.4.1 Johnson noise
            4.1.4.2 Shot noise
            4.1.4.3 1/f noise (excess noise)
            4.1.4.4 Photon noise (fundamental limit)
    4.2 Types of detectors
        4.2.1 Photon detectors
            4.2.1.1 Photovoltaic
                - Principles of operation
                - Characteristics
            4.2.1.2 Photoemissive
                - Principles of operation
                - Characteristics
            4.2.1.3 Photoconductive
                - Principles of operation
                - Characteristics
            4.2.1.4 Photodiode structurea
                - IV characteristics
                - Planar diffused types
                - Schottky barrier types 4.2.1.5 Photomultipliers
                - Principles
                - Structure
                - Characteristics
            4.2.1.6 Avalanche photodiodes
                - Principles
                - "Solid state photomultipliers"- Characteristics
        4.2.2 Thermal detectors
            4.2.2.1 Bolometers and thermistors
                - Principles
                - Characteristics
            4.2.2.2 Calorimeters
                - Principles
                - Characteristics
            4.2.2.3 Pyroelectric
                - Principles
                - Characteristics
    4.4 Calibration
        4.4.1 Response of detector
            4.4.1.1 Power measurements
            4.4.4.2 Energy measurements
        4.4.2 Techniques to limit beam power
            4.4.2.1 Attenuating filters
            4.4.2.2 Beamsplitters
            4.4.2.3 Lambertian reflectors
        4.4.3 Electrical calibration
    4.5 Circuitry for optical detectors
        4.6.1 Basic circuit for a photoconductive detector
        4.6.2 Basic circuit for a photovoltaic detector
        4.6.3 Basic circuit for a photoemissive detector
        4.6.4 Basic circuit for a photomultiplier
        4.6.5 Basic circuit for a thermal detector
    4.6 Human vision
        4.6.1 The eye as an optical detector
        4.6.2 Structure of the eye
            4.6.2.1 Cornea
            4.6.2.2 Lens
            4.6.2.3 Aqueous and vitreous humors
            4.6.2.4 Retina
            4.6.2.5 Rods and cones
        4.6.3 Operation of the eye
            4.6.3.1 Image formation
            4.6.3.2 Spectral response
            4.6.3.3 The interaction of light with the eye, leading to vision
        4.6.4 Color
            4.6.4.1 Brightness, saturation and hue
            4.6.4.2 Chromaticity diagram
        4.6.5 Defects of vision
            4.6.5.1 Myopia
            4.6.5.2 Farsightednes
            4.6.5.3 Astigmatism
            4.6.5.4 Color blindness


Module 5. Optical Waveguides and Fibers

    5.1 Nature of waveguiding
        5.1.1 Trapping of light
            5.1.1.1 Total internal reflection
            5.1.1.2 Propagation of light through a long narrow waveguiding structure
        5.1.2 Types of waveguiding structure
            5.1.2.1 Waveuides surounded by a different material
            5.1.2.2 Embedded waveguides
            5.1.2.3 Structure of an optical fiber-core and cladding
    5.2 Operation of fibers
        5.2.1 The optical fiber as a waveguide
            5.2.1.1 Coupling of light into a fiber
            5.2.2.2 Propagation through a fiber
        5.2.2 Fiber properties
            5.2.2.1 Maximum acceptance angle
            5.2.2.2 Numerical aperture
            5.2.2.3 Loses
    5.3 Types of fibers
        5.3.1 Single mode
            5.3.1.1 Conditions for single mode operation
            5.3.1.2 Typical structure
            5.3.1.3 Advantages and disadvantages
        5.3.2 Multimode
            5.3.2.1 Structure
            5.3.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages
        5.3.3 Graded index
            5.3.3.1 Principle of operation
            5.3.3.2 Structure
            5.3.3.3 Comparison to other types
    5.4 Fiber loss
        5.4.1 Attenuation
            5.4.1.1 Origin
            5.4.1.2 Wavelength dependence
            5.4.1.3 Numerical values
        5.4.2 Modal dispersion
            5.4.2.1 Origin
            5.4.2.2 Wavelength dependence
            5.4.2.3 Numerical values
        5.4.3 Chromatic dispersion
            5.4.3.1 Origin
            5.4.3.2 Wavelength dependence
            5.4.3.3 Numerical values
    5.4 Applications of fibers
        5.4.1 Telecommunications
            5.4.1.1 This is the major use
            5.4.1.2 It will be discussed in detail later
        5.4.2 Medical applications of fibers
            5.4.4.1 Viewing instruments for internal body structures
            5.4.2.2 Angioplasty
        5.4.3 Fiber sensors
            5.4.3.1 Principles of operation
            5.4.3.2 Intrinsic sensors
            5.4.3.3 Extrinsic sensors
            5.4.3.4 Interferometric sensors
            5.4.3.5 Sensors for temperature, pressure, etc.
            5.4.3.6 Fiber optic gyros


Module 6. Basics of Fiber Optic Telecommunications

    6.1 Introductory Principles
        6.1.1 Basic system considerations
            6.1.1.1 Analog vs digital
            6.1.1.2 Typical system design
        6.1.2 Modulation
            6.1.2.1 Data rate
            6.1.2.2 Pulse code modulation
            6.1.2.3 Pulse position modulation
            6.1.2.4 Definition of distance-bandwidth product
        6.1.3 Wavelength
            6.1.3.1 Wavelengths available
            6.1.3.2 Advantages and limitations of 859 nm
            6.1.3.3 Advantages and limitations of 1300 nm
            6.1.3.4 Advantages and limitations of 1550 nm
    6.2 Components
        6.2.1 Cable
            6.2.1.1 Types
            6.2.1.2 Structures
            6.2.1.3 Losses    
        6.2.2 Connectors
            6.2.2.1 Types
            6.2.2.2 Structures
            6.2.2.3 Losses
        6.2.3 Transmitters
            6.2.3.1 Light sources
            6.2.3.2 Drive circuits
            6.2.3.3 Coupling into fiber
        6.2.4 Receivers
            6.2.4.1 PIN detectors
            6.2.4.2 APD detectors
            6.2.4.3 Circuits    
        6.2.5 Repeaters
            6.2.5.1 Gain required
            6.2.5.2 Signal regeneration
            6.2.5.3 Amplification
            6.2.5.4 Retransmission
    6.3 Tradeoffs in component choices
        6.3.1 Choice of wavelength
            6.3.1.1 Factors favoring different available wavelengths
            6.3.1.2 Choice for various applications
        6.3.2 Component choices
            6.3.2.1 Lasers vs LEDs
            6.3.2.2 Single mode vs multimode fibers
            6.3.2.3 Avalanche photodiodes vs PIN photodiodes
    6.4. Capabilities of installed systems
        6.4.1 Wavelength
            6.4.1.1 Existing systems
            6.4.1.2 Systems being installed
        6.4.2 Performance
            6.4.2.1 Bandwidth
            6.4.3.2 Distance between repeaters


Module 7. Basic Principles and
Applications of Holography

    7.1 Fundamentals of holography
        7.1.1 Holography as a two-beam interference phenomenon    
            7.1.1.1 Preservation of phase information
            7.1.1.2 Contrast to conventional photography
        7.1.2 Holography as a 2 stage process
            7.1.2.1 Recording
            7.1.2.2 Reconstructing
    7.2 The holographic recording process
        7.2.1 Typical arrangement of equipment
            7.2.2.1 The object beam
            7.2.2.2 The reference beam
            7.2.2.3 The recording medium
            7.2.2.4 Steps in recording a hologram
        7.2.2 Developing the hologram
            7.2.2.1 Materials
            7.2.2.2 Processing steps
    7.3 The reconstruction process
        7.3.1 Typical arrangement of equipment
            7.3.1.1.Repositioning
            7.3.1.2 Use of reference beam
        7.3.2 Results of reconstruction
            7.3.2.1 Real and virtual images
            7.3.2.2 Three-dimemsional nature
            7.3.2.3 Properties of the reconstructed images
    7.4 Types of holograms
        7.4.1 Thick and thin
            7.4.1.1 Methods of fabrication
            7.4.1.2 Characteristics
        7.4.2 Amplitude and phase
            7.4.2.1 Methods of fabrication
            7.4.2.2 Characteristics
        7.4.3 Transmission and reflection
            7.4.3.1 Methods of fabrication
            7.4.3.2 Characteristics
        7.4.4 Off-axis Fresnel
            7.4.4.1 Methods of fabrication
            7.4.4.2 Characteristics
        7.4.5 Fourier transform
            7.4.5.1 Methods of fabrication
            7.4.5.2 Characteristics
    7.5 Applications
        7.5.1 Display
        7.5.2 Security
        7.5.3 Bar code scanning
        7.5.4 Introduction to holographic non-destructive testing
            7.5.4.1 Principles
            7.5.4.2 Strain and vibration analysis


Module 8. Photonic Devices for Imaging and Display

    8.1 Introductory concepts
        8.1.1 Sampling theory
            8.1.1.1 Pixels
            8.1.1.2 Resolution and spatial frequency
            8.1.1.3 Bandwidth
        8.1.2 Imaging systems
            8.1.2.1 Cameras
            8.1.2.2 Scanners
            8.1.2.3 Files
    8.2 Imaging devices
        8.2.1 CCD cameras
            8.2.1.1 Structure
            8.2.1.2 Capabilities
        8.2.2 Vidicons
            8.2.2.1 Structure
            8.2.2.2 Capabilities
        8.2.3 Image intensifiers
            8.2.3.1 Structure
            8.2.3.2 Capabilities
    8.3 Display devices
        8.3.1 Introduction to cathode ray tubes (CRTs)
            8.3.1.1 Construction
            8.3.1.2 Performance
        8.3.2 Flat panel liquid crystal displays
            8.3.2.1 Liquid crystal theory
            8.3.2.2 Active matrix liquid crystal displays
            8.3.3.3 Passive matrix liquid crystal displays
            8.3.3.4 Thin film transistor drivers
        8.3.3 Electroluminescent Displays
            8.3.3.1 Electroluminescence
            8.3.3.2 Structure
            8.3.3.3 Capabilities
        8.3.4 Introduction to LED Displays
            8.3.4.1 Basics of LED operation
            8.3.4.2 Structure
            8.3.4.3 Capabilities

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